hwaien

Wednesday, February 02, 2005

The Dazu Rock Carvings — The Jade Emperor

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  • Country: China
  • Subject: The Jade Emperor
  • Period: S. Song Dynasty
  • Date: 1131-1162 A.D.
  • Format: Sculpture
  • Medium: Sandstone
The sculptor depicts the jade emperor in a dragon-head throne, holding a jade tablet, wearing pockets of fragrance on his ears and enjoying the fan shades. The relaxed and carefree mode of this scene typifies the Taoist belief in action through inaction (wu wei).

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The Dazu Rock Carvings — The Peacock King

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  • Country: China
  • Subject: The Peacock King
  • Period: N. Song Dynasty
  • Date: 1126 A.D.
  • Format: Sculpture
  • Medium: Sandstone
The peacock king was a former incarnation of Śākyamuni. When as a peacock he sucked from a rock water of miraculous healing power. He is now one of the mahārāja bodhisattvas, with four arms, who rides on a peacock. The lotus throne in the sculpture represents a sense of original purity. The presence of the thousand Buddhas, the enlightened, on both sides of the wall also encourage devotees to strive for enlightenment and purity, which are the principles of Buddhism.

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The Dazu Rock Carvings — Confucius

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  • Country: China
  • Artist: Wen WeiJien
  • Subject: Confucius
  • Period: N. Song Dynasty
  • Date: 1082-1096 A.D.
  • Format: Sculpture
  • Medium: Sandstone
In this sculpture, Confucius is dressed in a traditional round-neck, wide-sleeve garment with jade belt, carrying a whisk in his right hand. The formality of his attire along with his upright posture contrasts the liveliness of the following two sculptures, and demonstrates the emphasis of Confucianism on rituals () and being a perfect gentleman (Jūnzǐ).

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The Dazu Rock Carvings

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The steep hillsides of the Dazu area contain an exceptional series of rock carvings dating from the 9th to the 13th century. They are remarkable for their aesthetic quality, their rich diversity of subject matter, both secular and religious, and the light that they shed on everyday life in China during this period. They provide outstanding evidence of the harmonious synthesis of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)

There is no better place than the Dazu Rock Carvings to look for artworks of different Chinese belief systems. Here we list three Dazu sculptures that are representative of the Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist belief systems.

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Saturday, October 30, 2004

Character Psych Template — Part 4

The Four Classes of Illumination of Law

Therefore substance combines with law, and the combination produces illumination.  Illumination is enough to see the law, and the law is able to become a system.
  1. The Law of Tao 道理
    • Definition:  the changeableness of all phenomena, the filling and emptying, the increasing and lessening.
    • Substance and nature:  balanced, with subtle and profound mind.
    • Ability:  to understand naturally.
  2. The Law of Affairs 事理
    • Definition:  the rectification of affairs by laws and institutions.
    • Substance and nature:  active and intelligent, with cunning and clever plans.
    • Ability:  to administer complicated affairs.
  3. The Law of Correct Behavior 義禮
    • Definition:  the suitability of ritual and doctrine.
    • Substance and nature:  peaceable.
    • Ability:  to discuss matters of ritual and doctrine, their merits and defects.
  4. The Law of Temperament 情理
    • Definition:  the pivot of human emotions.
    • Substance and nature:  subtle and analytical.
    • Ability:  to infer from the emotions the ideas which were their cause, and suit their changing emotions.

The Nine Partialities of Temperament

And because human nature invades illumination, each [partiality] has its merits and defects.
  1. The Unyielding and Generalizing 剛畧
    • Characteristic:  cannot deal with details.
    • Merit:  vast and wide when discussing matters of importance.
    • Defect:  does not stop but skip over minute laws when calculating them.
  2. The Obstinate and Austere 抗厲
    • Characteristic:  inflexible.
    • Merit:  complete and just when discussing law.
    • Defect:  runs contrary to the facts and cannot begin to understand when speaking about changing conditions.
  3. The Firm and Strong 堅勁
    • Characteristic:  likes to work upon actual facts.
    • Merit:  penetrating and complete when indicating the crucial point in the reasoning.
    • Defect:  exposed and isolated when coming to general principles.
  4. The Fluent 辯給
    • Characteristic:  has many words and sharp ideas.
    • Merit:  sees the essentials and arrives at causes when inferring concerning human affairs.
    • Defect:  astonished and cannot be all-embracing when coming to general concepts.
  5. The Drifting 浮沉
    • Characteristic:  cannot think profoundly.
    • Merit:  broad and shallow when talking about general estimates.
    • Defect:  wavering and unstable when coming to set up the essentials of things.
  6. The Person of Shallow Explanations 淺解
    • Characteristic:  cannot go deeply into difficulties.
    • Merit:  astonished and pleased when hearing discussions.
    • Defect:  changes frequently and has no own principles when examining essential reasons.
  7. The Forgiving and Considerate 寬恕
    • Characteristic:  cannot act quickly.
    • Merit:  vast, minute, endless and refined when discussing virtue.
    • Defect:  dilatory and lags behind when coming to actual affairs.
  8. The Mild and Pliant 溫柔
    • Characteristic:  cannot be strong.
    • Merit:  harmonious and clear when chewing over principles.
    • Defect:  weak and incomplete when coming to settle a doubtful difficulty.
  9. The Person Who Likes Extraordinary Things 好奇
    • Characteristic:  adventurous and seeks for the unusual.
    • Merit:  masterful and fertile when coming to create fanciful things.
    • Defect:  deviates from the norm and is wide off the mark when coming to pure principles.

The Laws of the Abilities

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The Study of Human Abilities
Translated by J. K. Shryock*

Chapter 4 - The Laws of the Abilities

     To establish affairs and set up standards, it is necessary to determine [all things] according to laws.  To discuss this adequately is difficult; there are few who are able to determine it.  Why is this?  Laws are of many kinds, while men differ.  When laws are of many kinds, then they are difficult to understand.  When the abilities of men differ, then temperaments are deceitful.  When temperaments are deceitful and understanding is difficult, then law is lost, and affairs go to the contrary.

          Laws have four categories.
          Illumination has four classes.
          Temperament has nine partialities.
          Developments have seven similitudes.
          Debates have six causes of irritation.
          Understanding has eight capacities.

     The changeableness of all phenomena, the filling and emptying, the increasing and lessening, is the law of Tao.

     The rectification of affairs by laws and institutions is the law of affairs.

     The suitability of ritual and doctrine is the law of correct behavior.

     The pivot of human emotions is the law of temperament.

     These four laws are not similar.  When they are acting through the innate abilities [of men], they wait for illumination and manifestation.  Illumination waits for substance before it can act.  Therefore substance combines with law, and the combination produces illumination.  Illumination is enough to see the law, and the law is able to become a system.

     Therefore [when a man’s] substance and nature are balanced, his mind is subtle and profound.  He is able to understand naturally, and belongs to the class of [those who understand] the law of Tao.

     [When man’s] substance and nature are active and intelligent, his plans are cunning and clever, and he is able to administer complicated affairs.  He belongs to the class of [those who understand] the law of affairs.

     [When man’s] substance and nature are peaceable and able to discuss matters of ritual and doctrine, their merits and defects, he belongs to the class of [those who understand] correct behavior.

     [When man’s] substance and nature are subtle and analytical, he can infer from the emotions the ideas which were their cause, and is able to suit their changing emotions.  He belongs to the class of [those who understand] the law of temperament.

     Since the illumination of these four classes is different, possessing the nine partialities of temperament, and because human nature invades illumination, each [partiality] has its merits and defects.

     The unyielding and generalizing man cannot deal with details.  Therefore when he discusses matters of importance, he is vast and wide.  But when he calculates minute laws, he does not stop but skips over them.

     The obstinate and austere man is inflexible.  When he discusses law, he is complete and just.  But when he speaks about changing conditions, he runs contrary to the facts, and cannot begin to understand.

     The firm and strong man likes to work upon actual facts.   When he indicates the crucial point in the reasoning, he is penetrating and complete.  But when he comes to general principles, he is exposed and isolated.

     The fluent man has many words and sharp ideas.  When he infers concerning human affairs, he sees the essentials and arrives at causes.  But when he comes to general concepts, he is greatly astonished, and cannot be all-embracing.

     The drifting man cannot think profoundly.  When he talks about general estimates, he is broad and shallow.  When he comes to set up the essentials of things, he is wavering and unstable.

     The man of shallow explanations cannot go deeply into difficulties.  When he hears discussions, he is astonished and pleased.   But when he examines essential reasons, he changes frequently and has no principles of his own.

     The forgiving and considerate man cannot act quickly.   When he discusses virtue, he is vast, minute, endless, and refined.   But when he comes to actual affairs, he is dilatory and lags behind.

     The mild, pliant man cannot be strong.  When he is chewing over principles, he is harmonious and clear.  But when he comes to settle a doubtful difficulty, he is weak and incomplete.

     The man who likes extraordinary things is adventurous and seeks for the unusual.  When he comes to create fanciful things, he is masterful and fertile.  But when he comes to pure principles, he deviates from the norm and is wide off the mark.

     These are what are called the nine partialities of human nature.  Each man follows what he regards as reasonable.

     If a man’s nature is not refined and perspicuous, this results in the seven similitudes.

     There are men who talk aimlessly about ancient things, as if they could put these things into practice.

     There are men who give many reasons, and seem as if they had broad thoughts.

     There are men who can discuss agreeably, and seem as if they explained laudably.

     There are men who by lagging behind appear to choose correctly, and who follow what is liked by the multitude, so that it seems as if they could judge correctly.

     There are men who avoid the difficult by not replying.   They seem to have more than enough, and yet in reality they do not know.

     There are men who love to comprehend the explanations of others, and who seems to be pleased, yet they are not happy.

     There are men whose arguments are empty, although they themselves think they are plausible.  Their reason fall down, yet they continue to urge them.  Really they seek a double interpretation.  It seems that they cannot be defeated by reason.

     All these seven similitudes are the cause of the deception among the multitude.

     In discussion, there are those who win by reason, and those who win by words.  Those who win by reason put black and white in their right places, in order to enlarge their argument, and by explaining subtleties they bring about understanding.  Those who win by words break the right reason, in order to arrive at something different, and to obtain something different, the right is lost.

     The abilities of the nine partialities have similarities, opposites, and mixtures.  The similarities will explain each other.  The opposites will contradict each other.  The mixtures will enlarge each other.

     Therefore a man who is able in discussion measures the advantages and discusses them.  He will not try to persuade those whose minds are preoccupied.  He will not discuss with those who are unable to understand.

     A man who is not able in discussion will endeavor to persuade others by means of opposites and mixtures.  If he endeavors to persuade others by means of opposites and mixtures, he will not succeed.

     Those who are apt in illustration will use one word to explain several things.  Those who are not apt in illustration will use a hundred words without explaining one idea.  If a hundred words do not explain one idea, no one will listen.

     These are the three defects of discussion.

     Those who are good in debate must explain the roots of things.  Those who are not good in debate forsake the roots and deal with the tips of the branches.  If they forsake the roots and deal with the tips of the branches, a structure of [mere] words is built up.

     Those who are able to attack the powerful [in debate] will avoid the sudden burst of enthusiasm and sharpness [of the good debater], sticking to fundamental points and attacking gradually.  Those who are not good in attacking the powerful will pick up their opponent’s misstatements, in order to push down his sharp ideas.  To push down an opponent’s sharp ideas, is to arouse his temper.

     Those who are good at stepping on the faults of others, point out only the cause of the faults.  Those who are not good at stepping on the faults of others will take advantage of the mistakes of their opponents, in order to blame their natures.  To take advantage of mistakes, and to blame their natures, is to build up hatred.

     Sometimes a man will think over a problem for a long time.  Finally he gets it (the solution).  He tells others, without giving them time to think it over.  The others cannot comprehend it quickly, so he regards them as hard to instruct.  To regard others as hard to instruct, is to build up fury.

     In the height of a debate, an opponent’s misstatements must not be pressed too hard.  Therefore the good debater will turn his opponent’s mistakes back to the original point.  The poor debater will over-ride his opponent’s mistakes and press them.  Although his opponent wishes to yield, the circumstances will not permit it.  As the circumstances will not permit [yielding], falsity will be built up.

     When a man is thinking, he is sometimes unconscious of what his ears hear.  When telling and thinking are hindering each other, and the speaker wishes others to understand him, the others are thinking, and so do not understand.  The speaker regards them as lacking in understanding.  But human nature resents being regarded as lacking in understanding.  To resent being regarded as lacking in understanding is to build up anger.

     All these six causes of irritation are the sources of transformations.  Although there are changes and irritation, still something is obtained.  If there are only discussions, but no debates, and each one gives what he sees, that which was the cause remains unknown.

     So we may infer from these conditions that those who merely discuss, and yet are able to fix principles, are few.  [Such a man’s] intelligence must be able to understand order.  His thoughts must be able to create beginnings.  His illumination must be able to see the pivot.  His words must be able to make clear his ideas.  His alertness must be able to hold up his faults.  His defense must be able to repulse attacks.  His attack must be able to take the defense.  He must be able to take in and give out.  One must possess all these eight, and then he will be able to understand the law of the universe.  If he can understand the law of the universe, then he can understand man.

     If one does not possess all these eight beautiful powers, but possesses only one of them, then what he achieves will be one-sided, and what he possesses is of a different category.

     Therefore when intelligence can understand order, this is called the ability of classification.

     When thought can create beginnings, this s called constructive ability.

     When illumination is able to see secrets, this is called the ability for apprehension.

     When words make clear the ideas, this is called the ability for adequate expression.

     When alertness holds up faults, this is called the ability for quick adjustment.

     When defense repulses attack, this is called the ability for upholding discussion.

     When the attack takes the defense, this is called the ability for advancing.

     When taking can be transformed into giving, this is called the ability for bartering discussions.

     A man who understands ability possesses all these eight abilities, and uses them in the proper way.  When he speaks to another man who understands all things, there will be similar understandings in their minds.  When he speaks with the multitude, he examines their appearance and acts in accordance with their nature.  Although his illumination embraces all law, he does not use it to over-top men.  Although his intelligence is resourceful, he does not use it to go ahead of men.  Good words proceed from his mouth, but stop where they are sufficient.  He passes and does not press the vulgarity and mistakes of others.  He describes what others have in mind.  He aids the capacities of others.   He does not so use his facts as to offend others who are incapable.   He does not speak so as to exemplify that in which he excels.  Whether he speaks directly or indirectly, he has nothing to fear.  He will gather the beautiful sounds of the insects, and praise the accidental attainments of the foolish man.  There is propriety in what he takes and gives.  He is proper in going and staying.  When others are at the height of their anger, he will freely apologize.  When he wins a debate, he will not be arrogant because of his victory.  His mind is balanced, and his determination is instructive, without reproofs or negations.  It aims only at the attainment of Tao.  With a man like this, one can discuss the warp of the universe, and the law of things.

* Liu Shao. Jen wu chih. Translated by J. K. Shryock. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society, 1937.

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Thursday, October 28, 2004

A Tale of the Primes — Part 3

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Riemann died seven years after he introduced the Riemann Hypothesis, leaving the world without a proof. And so it was, as the 19th century gradually came to a close. In 1900, David Hilbert included the Riemann hypothesis in his famous list of 23 unsolved problems. The list was intended to shape the direction of mathematics for the new century. The Riemann Hypothesis is part of Problem 8 in the 23 problems. Hilbert said of the problem: “If I were to awaken after having slept for a thousand years, my first question would be: Has the Riemann Hypothesis been proven?”

Hilbert was not exaggerating. The Riemann Hypothesis resisted all attacks in the 20th century. It even threw some contestants into madness. According to Sylvia Nasar’s biography, A Beautiful Mind, mathematician John Forbes Nash was captivated by the prospect of proving the hypothesis and soon became delusional of having obtained a solution. Nash presented his solution to the American Mathematical Society in 1959, stunning fellow mathematicians with a series of nonsensical sentences. Less dramatic yet equally frustrating stories were all too common.

At the conclusion of the 20th century, the Riemann Hypothesis remained the only unsolved problem on Hilbert’s list. In 2000, the Clay Mathematics Institute of Cambridge, Massachusetts announced the Riemann Hypothesis as part of a new list of 7 problems for mathematicians in the new millennium. Attached to each problem is a $1,000,000 prize. Now, a proof of the Riemann Hypothesis is not only worth satisfaction and recognition, but also one million dollars.

But there is far more at stake. In the 1970s, the study of prime numbers was suddenly pulled out of the ivory towers of pure mathematics and into the rough and dirty world of commerce. Three MIT scientists exploited one of Fermat’s many discoveries about prime numbers and constructed a code that would provide impeccable security for sensitive information traveling over the Internet. This cryptography method is now commonly adopted by e-businesses and national intelligence agencies. The method relies on the fact that our knowledge of the primes is just enough to construct the code, but too little to crack it. Since the Riemann Hypothesis provides significant insight to the prime numbers, it is now the center of attention for the likes of AT&T, Hewlett-Packard, and the US National Security Agency.

As for the everyday online shopper, there is little need to worry. The proving of the Riemann Hypothesis has no immediate impact on Internet security. By the time its long term effects trickle down to the cracking of Internet security codes, governments and businesses will have had plenty of time to replace all cryptography methods involving the prime numbers. (The mathematical objects known as elliptical curves, for example, are ready alternatives for the prime numbers.) So, as the study of the primes continues, we may continue to enjoy the convenience and security of online shopping.

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A Tale of the Primes — Part 2

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Prime numbers have fascinated humankind for millennia. The earliest investigation into the primes is evidenced by a bone discovered in the mountains of central equatorial Africa, which dates from 6500 B. C. and records all prime numbers between 10 and 20. The ancient Chinese, characterized by their practical approach to mathematics, developed a physical understanding of the prime numbers by as early as 1000 B. C. The ancient Greeks, distinguished by their abstract view on mathematics, set out to discover universal truths underlying the primes.

In the 4th century B. C., Greek mathematician Euclid, arguably the father of mathematics, showed that there are infinitely many primes – one of the first marvelous truths about the prime numbers discovered by men. Around the same time, the Greeks also proved that any number can be built by multiplying one or more prime numbers, thereby revealing the potency of prime numbers as fundamental building blocks in the world of mathematics.

Drawn to this potential power of primes, mathematicians since Euclid relentlessly studied these numbers. If the sciences resort to mathematics to describe patterns and orders in the universe, and if the prime numbers are the cornerstone of mathematics, wouldn’t the study of the primes bring new insights into the understanding of the world? However, the deeper mathematicians delve into the prime numbers, the more troubling mysteries they uncover.

A mathematician may begin the study of the primes by asking a simple question about the behavior of these numbers: How are the primes distributed in all numbers? Surely one can generate a distribution of primes by removing all non-prime numbers one by one, as demonstrated by the 3rd century B. C. Greek librarian Eratosthenes in his construction of tables of primes. But most mathematicians set out believing that there exists an order in the distribution of primes, a pattern that allows these numbers to be described by elegant formulae rather than tabulated by brute force.

One such mathematician was Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). He proposed that raising 2 to the power of 2N and adding 1 would generate a prime number. This formula, though unproven at the time, inspired mathematicians to construct a formula that describes a specific class of prime numbers. The French monk Marin Mersenne, for instance, constructed a formula, 2p-1 (with p being any prime number), that generates a class of prime numbers now known as the Mersenne primes. The hope was that by constructing formulae describing specific primes, one might eventually stumble upon the secret to constructing a formula describing prime numbers in general.

Fermat’s first prime-generating formula, eventually disproved by Euler, was nonetheless a steppingstone for German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss, who conjured up an approximate description of prime numbers in general. Gauss (1777-1855), often referred to as the “prince of mathematics,” brought forth revolutionary ideas to most fields of mathematics: geometry, arithmetic, algebra, analysis, and, of course, the prime numbers. In 1801, Gauss proposed that the number of primes distributed between 1 and n is roughly equal to n over the natural logarithm of n. This rule for the distribution of prime numbers was proved forty-one years after Gauss died, and is now known as the Prime Number Theorem.

The Prime Number Theorem never correctly describes the prime numbers. It is only an approximation. Take the number 10,000,000,000 for example; if we count the prime numbers below it, there are exactly 455,052,512. The Prime Number Theorem predicts that there will be 434,294,493. The error is 20,758,019, or 4.5 per cent. To make matters worse, the error, though small, appeared to be unpredictable.

Working to remedy this deficiency was Gauss’s most eminent successor, Bernhard Riemann. Riemann (1826-1866) studied under Gauss and did important work in geometry, complex analysis, and mathematical physics, which ultimately led to Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Riemann was attempting a proof to guarantee that the per cent error of the Prime Number Theorem would get smaller as the numbers grew larger. What he discovered was what is now known as the Riemann zeta function. The Riemann zeta function indeed supplied the missing ingredient in Riemann’s proof, but there is something more peculiar about it. As Riemann began observing some prime numbers through the function, he saw that the primes would always order themselves in a perfect straight line. If this was true for all prime numbers, Riemann would have found a pattern that described the prime numbers exactly, as opposed to Gauss’s never-exact Prime Number Theorem.

Excited about this breakthrough, Riemann shared his idea in the 1859 paper On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude to the Berlin Academy. As the mathematical community slowly came to grips with Riemann’s perspective on prime numbers, the brilliance of this new approach became evident. Riemann’s proposal of ordering the primes with his zeta function became known as the Riemann Hypothesis, which had set the course for the study of prime numbers to this day.

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A Tale of the Primes — Part 1

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On June 8, 2004, Purdue University announced that Louis de Branges de Bourcia, professor of mathematics, had proven the Riemann Hypothesis and solved a great mystery surrounding the prime numbers. Businesses, financial institutes and intelligence agencies round the world were at once alerted to the news.

“There are some mysteries that the human mind will never penetrate,” Leonhard Euler wrote in 1751, “To convince ourselves we have only to cast a glance at tables of primes and we should perceive that there reigns neither order nor rule.”

Euler (1707-1783) had won the Paris Academy Prize 12 times, and is the most prolific mathematical writer of all time. The architects of modern technologies had no doubt in him, devising security mechanisms protecting Internet commerce, bank transactions and intelligence work with prime numbers, confident that these numbers are “mysteries that [the minds of hackers and counterintelligence agencies] will never penetrate.”

Now, it would appear that Euler had been wrong.

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Sunday, October 24, 2004

Character Psych Template — Part 3

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The Twelve Categories of Abilities

The Three Primary Abilities and Their Variations
  1. The Person of Sublime Behavior 清節家
    • The person of sublime behavior’s virtuous actions are high and admirable, his/her bearing and conduct may be used as models.
    • Proper office:  teacher — in charge of the training of the heir-apparent.
    • Examples:
      • Yen Ling 延陵 — Yen Ling is the name of a place in the modern province of Kiangsu.  Wu Chi-cha, 吳季札, a man of the Spring and Autumn period, 6th century B. C., lived there, and is known by the name of the place.  The younger son of the lord of Wu, he refused the throne because it would have meant displacing his older brother.  The ruler of Hsü desired his sword, which Chi-cha mentally promised to give him.  On his return from a mission, he found the ruler dead, whereupon he hung up the sword over the ruler's grave, in order to keep a promise which had never been made orally.
      • Yen Ying 晏嬰 — Yen Ying, d. 493 B. C., was an official of the state of Ch‘i, noted for his thrift.  One fox-skin robe lasted him for thirty years.  He is known for a plan he suggested to the ruler, by which he eliminated three rival ministers.  He was noted for the satirical parables by which he remonstrated with his master.  The sayings attributed to him are preserved in a book called the Spring and Autumn Annals of Yen Tzu.
  2. The Statesperson 法家
    • The statesperson can frame laws and set up institutions, strengthen the country and enrich the people.
    • Proper office:  ssu-k‘ou 司寇 — in charge of the administration of justice, gives decisions as judges and sees that the decisions are carried out.
    • Examples:
      • Kuan Chung 管仲 — Kuan Chung, d. 645 B. C., was the prime minister of the Duke of Ch‘i.  He was able to make Duke Huang the leading man of China.  A great man, the facts of whose life are generally known, he was praised by Confucius as having saved Chinese civilization.
      • Shang Yang 商鞅 — Shang Yang, d. 338 B. C., was a minister of the state of Ch‘in.  A full study of his life and work are given in Duyvendak, The Book of Lord Shang.  Kuan Chung and Shang Yang are included in the School of Law.
  3. The Strategist 術家
    • The strategist's thoughts are penetrating and his/her way fluid, while his/her plans are marvelously clever.
    • Proper office:  san-ku 三孤 — the undersecretaries, assistants to san-kung, ranking above the six ministers.
    • Examples:
      • Fan Li 范蠡 — Fan Li, 5th century B. C.; as prime minister of the state of Wu, he enabled his master to conquer the rival state of Yüeh, after which he retired, saying that his master was one with whom a man might share adversity, but not prosperity.
      • Chang Liang 張良 — Chang Liang, d. 187 B. C., was the chief adviser of the founder of the Han dynasty.  Although generally upright, he has been condemned for advising the violation of a treaty.  In his defense it is said that the treaty would eventually have been broken in any case, and that by being the first to break it, he enabled his master to become the ruler of China  Shortly after Han Kao Tsu became emperor, he retired from public life.
  4. The Leader of a State 國體
    • The leader of states has the above three primary qualities, all three in completeness.  His/her virtue is sufficient to encourage the keeping of the mores; his/her law is enough to set the world right; his/her plans are able to win victory from within the temple.
    • Proper office:  san-kung 三公 — "the three dukes," elders of great experience, whose advice was asked by the emperor on grave questions, but who took no part in the actual administration.
    • Examples:
      • Yi Yin 伊尹 — Yi Yin, 18th century B. C., minister of T‘ang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, is a legendary figure of Chinese history.  Unfortunately the admirable speeches attributed to him in the Book of History are probably late compositions.
      • Lü Wang 呂望 — Lü Wang is one of the names given to the man generally referred to as Chiang T‘ai Kung, 姜太公.  He lived in the 11th and 12th centuries B. C., and was an adviser of the founder of the Chou dynasty.  Many legends and a cult have gathered about him.
  5. The Person of Instrumental Ability 器能
    • The person of instrumental ability has all three primary qualities in small measure.  His/her virtue is enough to lead a state; his/her law is sufficient to set right a village or a town; his/her plans are able to meet the exigencies of affairs.
    • Proper office:  prime minister — the chief of the six ministers, ranking below the three dukes.
    • Examples:
      • Tzu Ch‘an 子產 — Tzu Ch‘an, 581-521 B. C., was a minister of the state of Ch‘eng for forty years.  An older contemporary of Confucius, his tablet was placed in the Confucian temple in A. D. 1857.  He was praised by Confucius for combining leniency and strict laws in governing the people.  His name was Kung-sun Ch‘iao, 公孫僑.
      • Hsi-men Pao 西門豹 — Hsi-men Pao, 5th century B. C., was a magistrate in the modern province of Honan.  He found that the chief men and sorcerers of the place were securing large sums in order to provide a wife for the river god.  They would then drown a poor girl in the river.  Pao objected that the girl was not beautiful enough, and told the sorcerers they must report to the god that a more beautiful one would be chosen.  Accordingly he had them thrown into the river.  As they did not return, he told the chief men that they must go to discover the cause of the delay.  After this, the custom is said to have lapsed.
  6. The Critic 臧否
    • Approximating the person of sublime behavior, the critic is unable to be all-embracing and considerate.  He/she likes to be sarcastic and scornful, and to discriminate between right and wrong.
    • Proper office:  assistant to the teacher.
    • Examples:
      • Tzu Hsia 子夏 — Tzu Hsia, whose name was P‘u Shang 卜商, was born in 507 B. C.  He was a prominent disciple of Confucius, who is said to have given into his charge the texts of the Odes and the Spring and Autumn Annals.  He was a magistrate in the state of Lu, but went into retirement after the death of his master.
  7. The Practical Person 技倆
    • Approximating the statesperson, the practical person is unable to evolve new ideas and plan far ahead, yet able to perform the duties of an office, to polish ideas and carry them out cleverly.
    • Proper office:  ssu-k‘ung 司空 — minister of industry, one of the six ministers, in charge of "water and land."
    • Examples:
      • Chang Ch‘ang 張敞 — Chang Ch‘ang, d. 48 B. C., was an official of Han Yüan Ti.  He was distinguished as the governor of several districts and provinces, and noted for the good advice he gave the emperor.  He was a scholar of considerable reputation, and fearless in his denunciation of irregular conduct.
      • Chao Kuang-han 趙廣漢 — Chao Kuang-han flourished during the reign of Han Hsüan Ti, 57-49 B. C.  He was a magistrate of the metropolitan district, and noted for his efficient administration.  Condemned because of the hatreds his justice had aroused, a crowd of men offered to die in his place, but without avail.
  8. The Astute Person 智意
    • Approximating the strategist, the astute person is unable to found institutions and form permanent policies, yet able to use his/her versatility in changing circumstances.  He/she has more than enough wisdom and cunning, but is deficient in character.
    • Proper office:  assistant to the prime minister.
    • Examples:
      • Ch‘en P‘ing 陳平 — Ch‘en P‘ing, d. 178 B. C., first served the Prince of Wei, then Hsiang Chi, and finally Liu Pang.  When the latter became the first emperor of the Han dynasty, he became minister.  He served under the Empress Lu, but after her death defeated the plot of her family to set up a new dynasty.  He was the chief minister of Han Wen Ti, whom he was instrumental in seating on the throne.  He was the author of a number of clever devices famous in Chinese history, such as the trick by which he undermined the confidence of Hsiang Chi in his adviser, Fan Tseng.
      • Han An-kuo 韓安國 — Han An-kuo, 2nd century B. C., was an official of Han Wu Ti, noted for his wise plans.  He was merciful, and opposed to war and cruelty.  Eventually he was defeated by the Hsiung-nu, and died of mortification.
Learning and Scholarship Abilities
  1. The Literary Person 文章
    • The literary person is able to compose essays and write books.
    • Proper office:  imperial historiographer.
    • Examples:
      • Ssu-ma Ch‘ien 司馬遷 — Ssu-ma Ch‘ien, circa 145-88 B. C., was Grand Astronomer under Han Wu Ti.  At one time he was disgraced, but was later reinstated.  He is known for his reform of the calendar, and as the author of the first of the great dynastic histories, which has been partly translated by Chavannes.
      • Pan Ku 班固 — Pan Ku, d. A. D. 92, was like Ssu-ma Ch‘ien in being a member of a famous family, and also in being known as an author, rather than as an executive.  His father, brother, and sister were all famous.  He was the chief author of the second of the dynastic histories, the Ch‘ien Han shu.
  2. The Learned Person 儒學
    • The learned person can transmit the doctrines of sages, but is incapable of action and administrative duties.
    • Proper office:  pacificator.
    • Examples:
      • Mao Kung 毛公 — There are two men known as Mao Kung.  Here Mao Heng, 毛亨, is meant.  He was a scholar of the 3rd and 2nd century B. C., author of a commentary on the Odes, and responsible for the version of the Odes now generally accepted.
      • Kuan Kung 貫公 — Kuan Kung, circa 200 B. C., was the teacher of Chia Yi, 賈誼, and was famous as an authority on the Tso chuan.  He was an official (Po shih 博士) of the Prince of Ho Chien.
  3. The Dialectician 口辯
    • The dialectician's discussions do not enter Tao, but his/her conversation is full and fluent.
    • Proper office:  the minister of foreign affairs.
    • Examples:
      • Lo Yi 樂毅 — Lo Yi, 5th and 4th centuries B. C., was a native of the state of Wei.  Sent on an embassy to Yen, he entered the service of the ruler of that state, becoming a successful general.  He was later disgraced by a trick of the rival state of Ch‘i, and fled to Chao.  After Ch‘i defeated Yen, the ruler of Yen asked him to return, but he refused.  He was also noted for literary attainments and skill in debate.
      • Tsao-ch‘iu Sheng 曹丘生 — Tsao-ch‘iu Sheng was a native of the state of Ch‘u toward the close of the 3rd century B. C.  He was the guest and adviser of a sort of knight-errant named Chi Pu, 季布.  The latter acted, while the former did whatever speaking was necessary.  He was so skillful in this, that a Chinese who asks someone to speak for him requests the man to act as his Tsao-ch‘iu.
Military Ability
  1. The Hero 雄傑
    • The hero's courage and strength are superior to the average, his/her ability and tactics surpass those of the mass of people.
    • Proper office:  commander — the general in the field.
    • Examples:
      • Po Ch‘i 白起 — Po Ch‘i, d. 258 B. C., was a famous soldier of the Ch‘in state, to whose supremacy he made a large contribution.  He is said on one occasion to have murdered 400,000 soldiers of the state of Chao who had surrendered to him.  Eventually he was forced to commit suicide.
      • Han Hsin 韓信 — Han Hsin, d. 196 B. C., was the chief general of the founder of the Han dynasty, and one of the most famous military strategists and heroes of China.  After Han Kao Tsu was firmly on the throne, Han Hsin was suspected of planning a rebellion, and was executed.  A Chinese proverb says, "Beautiful girls and good soldiers never see their hair turn white."
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The Categories of Abilities

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The Study of Human Abilities Translated by J. K. Shryock*

Chapter 3 - The Categories of Abilities

     There are twelve categories of abilities:  the man of sublime behavior, the statesman, the strategist, the leader of a state, the man of instrumental ability, the critic, the practical man, the astute man, the literary man, the learned man, the dialectician, and the [military] hero.

     [If a man’s] virtuous actions are high and admirable, his bearing and conduct may be used as models.  Such a one is called a man of sublime behavior.  Yen Ling and Yen Ying were [of this class].

     [If a man can] frame laws and set up institutions, strengthen the country and enrich the people; such a one is called a statesman.   Kuan Chung and Shang Yang were [of this class].

     [If a man’s] thoughts are penerating and his way fluid, while his plans are marvelously clever; such a one is called a strategist.   Fan Li and Chang Liang were [of this class].

     [It is possible for a man to have] these three qualities, all three in completeness.  His virtue is sufficient to encourage the [keeping of the] mores.  His law is enough to set the world right.  His plans are able to win victory from within the temple.  Such a one is called the leader of a state.  Yi Yin and Lü Wang were [of this class].

     One may have all these three qualities in small measure.   His virtue is enough to lead a state.  His law is sufficient to set right a village or a town.  His plans are able to meet the exigencies of affairs.  Such a one is called a man of instrumental ability.  Tzu Ch‘an and His-meng Pao were [of this class].

     A man may have one of these three qualities incompletely, and this gives rise to three other categories.

     [A man approximating] the man of sublime behavior may be unable to be all-embracing and considerate.  He likes to be sarcastic and scornful, and to discriminate between right and wrong.  Such a man is called a critic.  Those like Tzu Hsia are [of this class].

     [A man approximating] the statesman may be unable to evolve new ideas and plan far ahead, yet able to perform the duties of an office, to polish ideas and carry [them] out cleverly.  Such a one is called a practical man.  Chang Ch‘ang and Chao Kuang-han [were of this class].

     [A man approximating] the strategist may be unable to found institutions and form permanent policies, yet able to use his versatility in changing circumstances.  He has more than enough wisdom and cunning, but is deficient in character.  Such a one is called an astute man.  Ch‘en P‘ing and Han An-kuo were [of this class].

     These eight categories all use the first three qualities as their sources.  Therefore although there are differences in their variations, they are all abilities which make affairs easy.

     One who is able to compose essays and write books is called a literary man.  Ssu-ma Ch‘ien and Pan Ku were [of this class].

     One who can transmit the doctrines of sages, but who is incapable of action and administrative duties, is called a learned man.  Mao Kung and Kuan Kung were [of this class].

     One whose discussions do not enter Tao, but whose conversation is full and fluent, is called a dialectician.  Lo Yi and Tsao-ch‘iu Sheng were [of this class].

     One whose courage and strength are superior to the average, whose ability and tactics surpass those of the mass of men, is called a [military] hero.  Po Ch‘i and Han Hsin were [of this class].

     All these twelve abilities are qualities of officials.   The virtue of the sovereign is not included.

     One having the  virtue of the sovereign has wisdom and balance of character, integrating and directing all these qualities, yet not assuming the duties himself.  Therefore when the Tao of the sovereign is established, the twelve abilities will receive their proper offices.

     The virtue of the man of sublime behavior belongs to the office of teacher.

     The ability of the statesman belongs to the office of ssu-k‘ou.

     The ability of the strategist belongs to the office of san-ku.

     Those who have these three qualities in their completeness belong in the office of san-kung.

     Those who have a little of the three abilities belong in the office of prime minister.

     The ability of the critic belongs to the office of assistant to the teacher.

     The ability of the astute man belongs to the office of assistant to the prime minister.

     The ability of the practical man belongs to the office of ssu-k‘ung.

     The ability of the learned man belongs to the office of pacificator.

     The ability of the literary man belongs to the office of imperial historiographer.

     The ability of the dialectician belongs to the office of the minister of foreign affairs.

     The ability of the military hero belongs to the office of commander.

     Therefore when the way of the sovereign is achieved, the way of the ministers follows as a corollary.  The officers will not change their places, and peace will be attained.

     If the way [of the sovereign] is not balanced, but inclines toward one of these abilities, that ability will acquire [undue] power, and the other abilities will lose employment.

* Liu Shao. Jen wu chih. Translated by J. K. Shryock. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society, 1937.

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Tuesday, October 19, 2004

Character Psych Template — Part 2

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The Twelve Types of Personalities

The nature of partial abilities cannot be transformed.
Therefore there is some show of excellence, but also some falling short of reasonableness.
Yang — Going Beyond the Mean
  1. The Strong-Willed 彊毅
    • Description:  Severe, strict, sharp, and resolute; fierce, unyielding, and unamiable.
    • Ability:  regulating others; can establish law.
    • Defect:  to stimulate others’ faults; cannot enter into subtleties; does not refrain from the rudeness of his/her strength, but regards compromise as surrender, in order to incite his/her ambition.
  2. The Bold and Imperious 雄悍
    • Description:  Fierce, brave, heroic, and strong; impetuous and courageous.
    • Task:  fiery action; can go through difficult situations.
    • Defect:  too much jealousy; cannot stay under restraint; does not refrain from the ruinous fall of his/her bravery, but regards compromise as cowardice, in order to put forth his/her power to the utmost.
  3. The Dominating 凌楷
    • Description:  Strong, exemplary, firm, and unyielding; holds to his/her own ideas, and is outstanding.
    • Use:  being a pillar; can maintain uprightness.
    • Defect:  self-will and obstinacy; cannot lead the mass of people; does not refrain from the obstinacy of his/her feelings, but regards discussion as hypocrisy, in order to strengthen his/her absoluteness.
  4. The One-Sided and Righteous 狷介
    • Description:  Clear, resolute, incorruptible, and pure; scorns both the clean and the unclean.
    • Reputation:  thriftiness and determination; can guard moral principles
    • Defect:  conventionality; cannot change situations; does not refrain from the narrowness of his/her way, but regards toleration as dirtiness, in order to increase his/her bigotry.
  5. The Active 休動
    • Description:  Eminent and superior in action; has high ambitions.
    • Achievement:  advancing.
    • Defect:  looseness, going too far; cannot hold the rear; does not refrain from the multiplicity of his/her ideas, but regards calmness as stagnation, in order to strengthen his/her sharpness.
  6. The Simple and Transparent 樸露
    • Description:  Upright; has no doubts.
    • Substance:  sincere; can establish loyalty.
    • Defect:  lack of subtlety; cannot weigh changing values; does not refrain from the rudeness and directness of his/her sincerity, but regards cunning as boastfulness, in order to manifest his/her sincerity.
Yin — Not Reaching the Mean
  1. The Talkative 辨博
    • Description:  Discusses and explains adequately.
    • Talent:  unraveling knotty problems; can hold a flood of discourse.
    • Defect:  sophistry; cannot set up a concise standard; does not refrain from the flood of his/her words, but regards patterns as too binding, in order to follow his/her sophistry.
  2. The Fearful and Cautious 懼慎
    • Description:  Refined, docile, fearful, and cautious; afraid of trouble, and has much superstition.
    • Goodness:  courteous carefulness; can preserve the present order.
    • Defect:  too much suspicion; cannot perform heroic feats; does not refrain from his/her own timidity with reference to duty, but regards bravery as imprudent, in order to increase his/her doubts.
  3. The All-Embracing 弘普
    • Description:  Universal, broad, and all-giving; pervades all things with benevolent feelings.
    • Greatness:  covering all; can pacify the mass of people.
    • Defect:  muddiness; cannot uplift vulgarity; does not retrain from the muddiness and mixed nature of his/her friendships, but regards rectitude as one-sided, in order to enlarge his/her muddiness.
  4. The Mild and Easy-Going 柔順
    • Description:  Soft, pleasant, peaceful, and considerate; slow of thought and loose in judgment.
    • Beauty:  toleration; can do ordinary things.
    • Defect:  lack of decision; cannot deliberate about doubtful matters; does not refrain from the disorder of his affairs, but regards ambition as injurious, in order to rest in his comfort.
  5. The Profound and Calm 沉靜
    • Description:  Profound, calm, and crafty; encircles with thought.
    • Essence:  subtlety; can plan deeply.
    • Defect:  slowness; cannot act swiftly; does not refrain from the tardiness of his/her placidity, but regards action as carelessness, in order to ennoble his/her timidity.
  6. The Cunning and Scheming 韜譎
    • Description:  Has much wisdom and strategy; is all things to all men.
    • Versatility:  cleverness; can praise goodness.
    • Defect:  complacency; cannot correct flattery; does not refrain from trickery which deviates from the right, but regards sincerity as foolishness, in order to enhance his/her falsity.
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The Types of Personality

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The Study of Human Abilities Translated by J. K. Shryock*

Chapter 2 - The Types of Personality

     The substances of the virtue of the mean cannot be classified.  Therefore it is salty and yet not salty, tasteless and yet k‘uei, plain yet not undecorated, refined yet not over-decorated.  It can be awe-inspiring, and it can cherish.  It can argue fluently; it can speak briefly and cautiously.  It is capable of infinite change, reaching the proper state as its limit.

     Therefore the ambitious man will go beyond it; the conventional man will not reach it.  Both the ambitious man and the conventional man violate the mean.  Therefore there is some show of excellence, but also some falling short of reasonableness.

     So [when a man is] severe, strict, sharp, and resolute, his ability lies in regulating others, but his defect is to stimulate their faults.

     [When a man is] soft, pleasant, peaceful, and considerate, his beauty lies in toleration, but his defect lies in a lack of decision.

     [When a man is] fierce, brave, heroic, and strong, his task lies in fiery action, but his defect lies in too much jealousy.

     [When a man is] refined, docile, fearful, and cautious, his goodness lies in courteous carefulness, but his defect lies in having too much suspicion.

     [When a man is] strong, exemplary, firm, and unyielding, his use lies in being a pillar, but his defect lies in self-will and obstinacy.

     [When a man can] discuss and explain, his talent lies in unraveling knotty problems, but his defect lies in sophistry.

     [When a man is] universal, broad, and all-giving, his greatness lies in covering all, but his defect lies in being muddy.

     [When a man is] clear, resolute, incorruptible, and pure, his reputation lies in thriftiness and determination, but his defect lies in conventionality.

     [When a man is] eminent and superior in action, his achievement lies in advancing, but his defect lies in looseness, and in going too far.

     [When a man is] profound, calm, and crafty, his essence lies in subtlety, but his defect lies in slowness.

     [When a man is] simple and upright, his substance is sincere, but his defect is a lack of subtlety.

     [When a man has] much wisdom and strategy, his versatility lies in cleverness, but his defect lies in complacency.

     Until the day of advancing their virtue, they do not stop at the mean as their norm in order to refrain from the conventionality or ambition of their abilities, but point out the defects of others in order to increase their own defects.  It is like wearing the sword in the states of Chin and Ch‘u; either side is wrong.

     Therefore the strong-willed man is fierce, unyielding, and unamiable.  He does not refrain from the rudeness of his strength, but regards compromise as surrender, in order to incite his ambition.  So one can use him to establish law, but it is hard to enter into subtleties with him.

     The mild, easy-going man is slow of thought and loose in judgment.  He does not refrain from the disorder of his affairs, but regards ambition as injurious, in order to rest in his comfort.  So one can do ordinary things with him, but it is hard to deliberate about doubtful matters with him.

     The bold, imperious man is impetuous and courageous.   He does not refrain from the ruinous fall of his bravery, but regards compromise as cowardice, in order to put forth his power to the utmost.  So one can go through difficult situations with him, but it is hard to stay with him under restraint.

     The fearful and cautious man is afraid of trouble, and has much superstition.  He does not refrain from his own timidity with reference to duty, but regards bravery as imprudent, in order to increase his doubts.  So one can preserve the present order with him, but it is hard to perform a heroic feat with him.

     The dominating man holds to his own ideas, and is outstanding.  He does not refrain from the obstinacy of his feelings, but regards discussion as hypocrisy, in order to strengthen his absoluteness.   So one can use him to maintain uprightness, but it is hard to lead the mass of men with him.

     The talkative man discusses adequately.  He does not refrain from the flood of his words, but regards patterns as too binding, in order to follow his sophistry.  So one can hold a flood of discourse with him, but it is hard to set up a concise standard with him.

     The all-embracing man pervades all things with his benevolent feelings.  He does not retrain from the muddiness and mixed nature of his friendships, but regards rectitude as one-sided, in order to enlarge his muddiness.  So one can use him to pacify the mass of people, but it is hard to uplift vulgarity with him.

     The one-sided and righteous man scorns both the clean and the unclean.  He does not refrain from the narrowness of his way, but regards toleration as dirtiness, in order to increase his bigotry.  So one can guard moral principles with him, but it is hard to use him in changing situations.

     The active man has high ambitions.  He does not refrain from the multiplicity of his ideas, but regards calmness as stagnation, in order to strengthen his sharpness.  So one can use him to advance, but it is hard to hold the rear with him.

     The profound and calm man encircles with his thought.   He does not refrain from the tardiness of his placidity, but regards action as carelessness, in order to ennoble his timidity.  So one can plan deeply with him, but it is hard to act swiftly with him.

     The simple and transparent man has no doubts.  He does not refrain from the rudeness and directness of his sincerity, but regards cunning as boastfulness, in order to manifest his sincerity.  So one can establish loyalty with him, but it is hard to weigh changing values with him.

     The cunning and scheming man is all things to all men.   He does not refrain from trickery which deviates from the right, but regards sincerity as foolishness, in order to enhance his falsity.  So one can praise goodness with him, but it is hard to correct flattery with him.

     The purpose of education is to perfect the abilities.   The purpose of a consideration for others is to extend the emotions.   The nature of partial abilities cannot be transformed.  Although one teaches them by education to perfect their abilities, these are followed by their defects.  Although one trains them by consideration of others to extend their emotions, each will follow his own mind.  The loyal man will accord with the loyal.  The deceitful man will accord with the deceitful.   Therefore education cannot lead a man to the right way, nor a consideration for others enable a man to understand things, [if the man possesses only partial abilities].  This is the increasing defectiveness of partial abilities.

* Liu Shao. Jen wu chih. Translated by J. K. Shryock. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society, 1937.

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Thursday, October 14, 2004

Character Psych Template — Part 1

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Introduction

I have long been seeking for a systematic procedure of creating multidimensional characters for my stories.

The search is over.  I decided on constructing a character template following guidelines from The Study of Human Abilities, translated by Dr. J. K. Shryock from Liu Shao's Jen wu chih.  As soon as the template is complete, I will begin using it to create characters for a new story.

The Five Virtues

The five categories of things are all exhibited in our bodies.
The differentiation of the five constants is arranged in order as the five virtues.
  1. Wood 木/Bone 骨/Manliness 仁:  strong-willed; bones are firm yet pliable; gentle yet upright, and docile yet strong.
  2. Metal 金/Muscles 筋/Performance of Duty 義:  courageous; muscles are strong and spirited; unyielding yet having a terminal, liberal yet decisive.
  3. Water 水/Blood 血/Wisdom 智:  an apprehender of subtilties; appearance is calm, yet potentially energetic; honest yet courteous, reasonable yet ritually correct.
  4. Earth 土/Flesh 肌/Fidelity 信:  virtuously firm; body is erect, dignified, and invigorated; gentle yet dignified, soft yet withstanding.
  5. Fire 火/Breath 氣/Correct Behavior 禮:  cultured; breath is clear and transparent; simple yet luxuriant, illuminating externals yet piercing the depths.

The Nine Manifestations

That whereby the nature may be understood is the manifestation of the nine substances.
  1. Balanced or unbalanced:  the soul 神.
  2. Clear or obscure:  the essence 精.
  3. Bravery or cowardice:  the muscles 筋.
  4. Firmness or precariousness:  the bones 骨.
  5. Impetuosity or calm:  the temperament 氣.
  6. Melancholy and cheerfulnes:  the countenance 色.
  7. Decay or good condition:  the bearing 儀.
  8. Hypocrisy or correctness:  the manner 容.
  9. Slowness or rapidity:  the speech 言.

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Wednesday, October 06, 2004

The Nine Manifestations

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The Study of Human Abilities Translated by J. K. Shryock*

Chapter 1 - The Nine Manifestations
     The temperament and nature issue from the original endowment of men.  The laws by which temperament and nature operate are subtle and profound.  Who can investigate these things, unless he has the insight of a sage?      All living beings contain a profound unity which gives them substance.  The Yin and Yang (the principles forming the universe) endow them with natures.  The five elements embody their form.      If a thing possesses both form and substance, it is possible to investigate it.      Within the capacity of substance of all men, harmony without excess is of the greatest value.  The essence of harmony without excess is that it should be balanced and tasteless, so that it can harmonize the five abilities, and be transformed in accordance with a rhythmic law.      Therefore in judging a man, look first at that which is commonplace about him, and afterwards at his intellect.  The intellect is the essence of Yin and Yang.  When the Yin and Yang are clear and in harmony, there will be enlightment within, and illumination without.  The sages, being pure and shining, possess both these beautiful qualities.  They know the obscure and the obvious.  Unless one is himself a sage, he cannot be successful in both kinds of knowledge.      A man of clear vision may understand the secret of action, yet be unable to think profoundly.  A man of profound intellect may know the source of meditation, and yet be distressed when he is forced to act quickly.  The former is like fire and the sun, shining without, but invisible within.  The latter is like metal and water, bright within, but unable to radiate light.  The significance of these two is the difference between Yin and Yang.      If we measure the abilities and the substances, and compare them with the five categories of things, we see that the five categories of things are all exhibited in our bodies.  In the body, bone corresponds to wood, the muscles to metal, the breath to fire, the flesh to earth, and the blood to water.  These five elements are the symbols of the five categories of things.      The property of the five things is to help and supplement one another.  One whose bones are firm yet pliable, is called strong-willed, and strong will is the substance of manliness.  One whose breath is clear and transparent, is called cultured, and culture is the origin of correct behavior.  One whose body is erect, dignified, and invigorated, is called virtuously firm, and virtuous firmness is the foundation of fidelity.  One whose muscles are strong and spirited, is called courageous, and courage is decisiveness in the performance of duty.  One whose appearance is calm, yet potentially energetic, is called an apprehender of subtilties, and the apprehension of subtilties is the source of wisdom.  The natures of the five substances are constant, so they are called the five constants.      The differentiation of the five constants is arranged in order as the five virtues.  Therefore the virtue of wood is gentle yet upright, and docile yet strong.  The virtue of metal is unyielding yet having a terminal, liberal yet decisive.  The virtue of water is honest yet courteous, reasonable yet ritually correct.  The virtue of earth is gentle yet dignified, soft yet withstanding.  The virtue of fire is simple yet luxuriant, illuminating [externals] yet piercing [the depths].  Although phenomena are forever changing, these changes are in conformity with the five substances.  Therefore the manifestations of firmness, docility, illumination, vitality, purity, and constancy are visible in the form and features, appear in the voice and looks, and issue in the passions and tastes.  All are indicated by their symptoms.      When the substance of the mind is clear and straightforward, the bearing is strong and firm.  When it is vigorous and decisive, the bearing is aggressive.  When it is rational, the bearing is calm and leisurely.      The mobile bearing is the manner.  Each variety of manner has its own behavior.  A straightforward manner is brave and firm.  A vigorous manner is strong and graceful.  A virtuous manner is dignified and majestic.      The movement of the manner issues from the mind and the breath.  The manifestation of the mind and breath is the variation of the voice.  The breath unites to make the voice.  The voice operates in accordance with the laws of sound.  There are peaceful voices.  There are clear and vigorous voices.  There are resonant voices.  When the breath invigorates the voices, then reality resides in the looks.  Therefore the truly benevolent man is sure to possess a warm and docile look.  The truly wise man is sure to possess an intelligent look.      The looks are visible [particularly] in the face, which is what is called the manifestation of the soul.  When the soul is manifested in the face, then the emotions issue through the eyes.  Therefore the essence of the eyes of the benevolent is guileless and proper.  The essence of a brave man is bright and strong.      Yet these abilities are partial accomplishments, because they use the various organs as their substance.  Therefore if the sustaining substance is not refined, success will not be achieved.  To be upright but not pliable, is to be wooden.  To be strong but not refined, is [mere] physical strength.  To be firm but not correct, is to be foolish.  To be angry but not clear, is to transgress.  To be vigorous but not levelheaded, is to be unstable.      Therefore the substance of the mean is different from these categories.  [In it] the five constants exist in completeness and are fully harmonized, the five substances fill [the person] within, and the five essences are manifested without.  So the rays of the eye are the light of the five brilliances.  Therefore it is said, things are created with forms, and forms possess souls and essences.  If one is able to understand the souls and essences, he can investigate law and empty the nature.      That whereby the nature may be understood is the manifestation of the nine substances.  Whether [a man’s] substance is balanced or unbalanced lies in the soul.  Whether [his] reality is clear or obscure lies in the essence.  Whether the force [he exerts] will be courageous or timorous, lies in his muscles.  Whether he is planted firmly or precariously lies in his bones.  Whether his judgements are impetuous or calm lies in his temperament.  Whether his emotions are melancholic or sanguine lies in his looks.  Whether his frame is in decay or in good condition lies in his bearing.  Whether his actions are hypocritical or correct lies in his manner.  Whether his behavior is slow or hasty lies in his speech.      If the substance of a man is pure and balanced, intelligent within and luminous without, his muscles strong, his constitution firm, his voice clear, his countenance sanguine, his bearing correct, and his manner straightforward, then the nine manifestations are all complete, and virtue is pure and unalloyed.      If any of the nine manifestations are absent, then the man has only partial, mixed abilities.      The three grades are different, and their virtues are designated differently.  The abilities of partial accomplishment have the name of those abilities.  A man of all the abilities is called virtuous.  A man of all the virtues belongs to a category of greater beauty.  Therefore the attainment of all the virtues is called the mean.      The mean is the category of the sages.  One who has a little of all these, is called a man of virtuous behavior.  Virtuous behavior is the equivalent of great refinement.  A man possessing one of these virtues, is called a man of partial ability.  Partial ability is the substance of small refinement.      One of these manifestations is called a similitude.  Such similitude is the category of a lack of true virtue.  When one virtue is present, and another absent, that man is without a norm.  Men without a norm are men of inconstancy.  Men without constancy, and men with a similitude, belong to the last class.      The substances of the lowest class are too many to be discussed; therefore we will ignore them. * Liu Shao. Jen wu chih. Translated by J. K. Shryock. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society, 1937. Next